New York, NY: Oxford University Press (pp. the systemic violence associated with the illegal drug market. By using quantitative data, it would be possible to identify a range of representative geographical hotspots pertaining to the crimes of interest across a sample of several towns and cities in the UK. While they can demonstrate broad patterns of disparities in CJS outcomes in relation to ethnicity, such aggregation cannot meaningfully be used to explore why these patterns exist. Within these BAME categories, people from Black African, Black Caribbean and Other Black groups consistently experienced the highest rates. , Harcourt, B. E. (2006). [footnote 70]. London is identified as the primary exporting hub, with 65% of the UKs police forces reporting lines into their jurisdiction originating in the capital. [footnote 68] A lack of trust can have a threshold effect in that too much distrust can result in mutual suspicion and hostility. However, the data also indicated that these figures can largely be attributed to possession of Class B drugs offences (including cannabis), which accounted for nearly half of all drug prosecutions (47%) and drug-related convictions (48%) for Black defendants. Tackling Anti-Social Behaviour. and Avary, D. W. (1991). Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic disproportionality in the Criminal Justice System in England and Wales, table A2.5 in Appendix 2. Those that do compare regions tend to do so by comparing London to the rest of England or the UK. [footnote 77] While too little trust can negatively impact order in prisons, too much trust can also have a similar effect. In October 2020, we developed a scoping paper designed to assist the Race Disparity Unit (RDU) in focusing its research questions as these relate to the current Commission on racial disparities. [footnote 42] This research suggests that drug use leads to involvement in criminal behaviour due to: Perhaps unsurprisingly, the risk and protective factors for drug use overlap with those for violent crime and gang involvement outlined above. Beginning with policing, Harcourts 2006 study in the US found that many interviewees carry weapons because they have limited confidence in the police to protect them from violence. It is generally the case that custodial sentencing is associated with a variety of factors, such as offender age, ethnicity, offence type and court where the case was heard. A 2019 College of Policing report shows that no relationship exists between ethnicity and weapon carrying, but that age and gender (for example, young men, age peaking at 15) along with adverse childhood experiences and low educational attainment, are predictive of weapon carrying and involvement in violent crime. Data has also shown that crack cocaine use is increasing in England and Wales. Risk factors are variables which can usefully predict an increased risk or likelihood of violent crime, drug use, gang involvement, property offences and antisocial behaviour. Both conviction rates and custodial sentencing was lower than for White men. , Sutherland, A., Brunton-Smith, I., Hutt, O., and Bradford, B. [footnote 60] Measures such as arrest rates, as well as those prosecuted and convicted, can only give a limited and very partial picture of the overall patterns of crime and how these relate to ethnicity. In the UK, however, mixed support for this explanation has been found. It will take only 2 minutes to fill in. Knife crime . In 2021, in London stabbings made up 74.4% of all homicides. Their analysis also identified several protective factors that work against gang involvement (see Table 4). [footnote 82]. A similar pattern emerged when examining knife crime with injury. A comparable picture emerged for young Black women, who were 5.1 times more likely to be arrested for robbery compared with young White women. This work showed that in London in 2017, 50% of knife crime offenders were BAME (up from 44% in 2008). , Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2011). Criminal Behaviour: A Psychological Approach. Preventing Gang and Youth Violence. For example, a lack of self-control, experience of victimisation, frequency of truanting are factors associated with adverse childhood experience (including abuse, neglect, parental criminality, substance abuse, being taken into care), poor educational attainment and school exclusion. In 2018, ethnic minority groups were overrepresented for prosecutions of possession of weapons offences, accounting for 30% of all prosecutions in this category. We then explore how these patterns may be explained in relation to the interrelated stages of a persons contact with, and journey through, the CJS in terms of policing, courts and sentencing. However, further analysis by the MOJ[footnote 6] of drug-related offences also demonstrated distinctive disproportionality in sentencing. , https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/dec/21/metropolitan-police-gangs-matrix-review-london-mayor-discriminatory, Home Office and Early Intervention Foundation (2015). Indeed, this was the only offence category where custodial sentencing was consistently more likely for all BAME men relative to the White group[footnote 8] but also for Black women, who were 2.3 times more likely to receive a custodial sentence for drugs relative to White women. 3 (2016): 365-397. In addition, the interrelated problems identified in the previous section revolved around: All these limitations point to the utility of a relatively large-scale, UK-wide, mixed-method study designed to gather both primary (new) and secondary (existing) data. Disproportionate and discriminatory: Reviewing the evidence on police stop and search. , Pyrooz, David C., Jillian J. Turanovic, Scott H. Decker, and Jun Wu. The rates for Asian, Black and Mixed ethnic groups were invariantly higher than the national average across the same time period. Any other offences are equal or lower. Preventing gang and youth violence: a review of the risk and protective factors. Such data tells us very little about the actual underlying levels of crime, given that the majority of offending goes unreported. According to the Mayor of London's Office for Policing and Crime, two thirds of knife crime offenders under 25 in London were black or ethnic minority in 2017. In relation to knife crime, a 2018 report entitled Justice Matters: Disproportionality[footnote 11] references data collected by the Metropolitan Police Service. In this sense, regarding property crime, apart from the key issue of drug addiction, the main risk factors arising from research relate more to situational opportunities and affordances than they do to factors relating the characteristics of the offenders involved. [footnote 76] Prisons are already low-trust environments but trust in prison officers by prisoners, and trust in prisoners by prison officers can result in an orderly prison environment. The available data suggests that ethnicity is associated with significant disparities within the CJS that are particularly acute for BAME men above 18 years old in relation to drug offences. Certain other groups (the Bangladeshi group, especially) showed some evidence for an increase in crime and ASB over time. The current evidence base indicates the important risk factors associated with committing specific crimes. Legitimacy and the influence of legal institutions. Associations between ethnic background and being sentenced to prison in the Crown Court in England and Wales in 2015. and searches performed in London 2021/22, by ethnicity. , It should be emphasised that CCTV while reducing crime in one area could increase crime in another due to displacement effects. (2013). The number of knife crimes In England and Wales has risen to a new record high, says the Office for National Statistics. [footnote 18]. Breaking and entering: an ethnographic analysis of burglary. Such a study might take around 3 years and begin by using quantitative data to identify a range of geographical hotspots pertaining to the crimes of interest across a sample of several towns and cities in the UK. Secondly, this problem is exacerbated by the fact that the bulk of the UK reports are all ultimately based on the same interrelated datasets provided by the government, and obtained from stakeholders largely through statutory reporting requirements. 326-352). Download Publication. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., Brown, J. and Sturge, G. (2020). , MoJ (2019). There do appear to be some patterns of ethnic disparity in anti-social behaviour (ASB) in the sample of reports and studies that we studied. [footnote 54] These were corroborated by a literature review conducted by Fitch (2009) and by a meta-analysis conducted by Murray and colleagues (2012). In their model, perceived risk of sanction did not reduce offending behaviour. Around 1,400 offenders convicted for acquisitive violence were examined. Ethnicity and Causal Mechanisms. [footnote 89] First, those who are LO because their levels of self-reported criminality extended over a long period of time and then increasing their level of offending in adulthood and who were then convicted. In 2018, Black defendants had the highest custody rate at 42%, while the custody rate for all other ethnic groups varied between 31% and 37% Since 2014, Mixed ethnicity offenders consistently had the highest percentage of offenders receiving a sentencing outcome of a community sentence (37% in 2018). [footnote 13]. The latest police recorded crime figures show that there were 47,119 offences involving a knife or sharp instrument recorded by the police in the year ending September 2020. Knife crime in London, communal violence in cities like Leicester, and religious sectarianism across a string of post-industrial towns in Northern England, are far more pressing issues IMO. White reoffenders also consistently had the highest average number of reoffences. It is reasonable to conclude that this interrelationship between policing and recorded offending exaggerates the extent to which the ethnic categories are then disproportionately understood to be involved in crime more generally (see Bowling and Phillips, 2007). , Ministry of Justice (2016). Cambridge University Press. [footnote 67] This would help to contextualise patterns of crime among different ethnic groups. Calls for a commission on knife crime in the black community 10 February 2022 Despite making up only 13% of London's total population, black Londoners account for 45% of London's knife. Centre for Crime and Justice Studies. A meta-analysis of 179 empirical studies and 107 independent datasets found a strong relationship between gang membership and various types of offending. These limitations point to the need for and utility of a relatively large-scale, UK-based, co-produced mixed method study, designed to gather both primary (new) and secondary (existing) data. Evidence-based crime prevention: The effectiveness of CCTV. Residential burglary in the Republic of Ireland: A situational perspective. [footnote 3]. Homicide Studies, 16 (2), 99-128; McVie, S. (2010). Beyond procedural justice: A dialogic approach to legitimacy in criminal justice. The drugs/violence nexus: A tripartite conceptual framework. Given limitations in the underlying data set, the majority of studies and reports that focus on ethnicity and crime use broad ethnic categorisations and do not tend to include a fine-grained analysis according to geographical location. This resonates with the arrest data on stop and search which showed that 56% of all people arrested for offensive weapons following a stop and search were Black. Asian victims had a higher proportion of cases where the principal suspect was a partner or ex-partner (19%) relative to Other (including Chinese), White and Black victims (14%, 14% and 6% respectively). Weapons and violence: A review of theory and research. For every year in this period, the stop and search rate per 1,000 people was consistently lower for White people compared with the national average. Low economic deprivation, neighbourhood interaction, and neighbour support, Gender (male), race and ethnicity, prenatal alcohol abuse, parental substance abuse history, parental depression, neighbourhood instability, History of abuse or neglect, poor family relationships, family management, internalizing or externalizing behaviour, favourable attitudes towards drug use, living situation, job status, college attendance, peer relations, belief in conformity, religious involvement, level of education, becoming pregnant, marriage or committed relationship, Cars in driveway, lights, presence of mail, burglar alarms, dogs (irrespective of size) but not cats, Appearance of residence and neighbourhood, landscaping quality and type of car driven, Amount of cover or openness, neighbouring houses and rear access, Impulsiveness, low intelligence and low school achievement, poor parental supervision, child physical abuse, punitive or erratic parental discipline, cold parental attitude, parental conflict, disrupted families, antisocial parents, large family size, low family income, antisocial peers, high delinquency-rate schools, and high-crime neighbourhoods, Physical abuse, school exclusion, poverty, lack of positive-role models, family criminality, and drug or alcohol abuse, Parental imprisonment (suggestive of antisocial parents and a lack of positive role models), the psychopharmacological properties of drugs. In 2018, the ACSL for possession of weapons offences was highest for Asian offenders at 17.1 months and lowest for Chinese or Other offenders at 8.8 months.
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