Three studies using SF-36 failed to find significant effects on the social domain; Lundqvist et al. Thorough reporting in terms of the magnitude and variability of effects observed will allow researchers to make informed comparisons across populations and interventions and conduct critically needed meta-analyses in the field. Research has indicated that beyond the physical or tangible benefits that an assistance dog is trained to provide (e.g. Therefore, future efforts should be made to publish null findings in peer-reviewed journals and to encourage scientific transparency [80]. [17] found no difference among mobility service dog users compared to controls. Studies compared outcomes of individuals with an assistance dog to before they received the dog (six longitudinal studies), to participants on the waitlist to receive an assistance dog (five longitudinal and seven cross-sectional studies), or to participants without an assistance dog (eight cross-sectional studies). As mentioned above, a surprisingly high number of studies did not ensure that assistance dog and control groups were statistically equal across demographic and disability characteristics prior to outcome analyses. Future studies should provide detailed researcher-specified criteria for participation as well as organizational-specified criteria for placing/receiving an assistance dog, if applicable. This occurred by either matching groups on select criteria or statistically comparing groups demographic characteristics before performing main analyses. Longitudinal studies addressed an average of 59% of methodological items while cross-sectional studies averaged 65%. Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting information files. Of 27 studies, 18 (67%) reported outcomes a standardized measure of social health with a total of 18 different standardized measures. [32] found no difference in occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a mobility service dog and Milan [41] found no group difference in those with and without a mobility service dog. Methods matter: A primer on permanent and reversible interference Animal experimentation, also called animal testing, has contributed to many important scientific and medical discoveries. Another potential reason for the inconsistencies in findings from studies assessing the same construct is disparities across standardized measures. Included studies assessed psychosocial outcomes via standardized measures from assistance dogs that were trained for functional tasks related to a physical disability or medical condition (omitting psychiatric service dogs or emotional support dogs). MEDLINE search terms and search strategy. Exclusions included those based on population, outcomes, and methodology. The most common provider organizations represented were Canine Companions for Independence (CCI; six mobility service dog studies), Paws with a Cause (four mobility service dog studies), and Hearing Dogs for Deaf People (HDDP; four hearing dog studies). In addition, null findings were reported on standardized measures of family role 3-, 6-, and 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [15], discrimination and social inclusion 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [34], and family and social self-concept among mobility dog users compared to a control group [37]. S2 Table. Medical service dogs for diabetes and seizure alert/response were rarely studied [16, 35], and were assessed in conjunction with mobility service dogs rather than on their own. However, even within a single category, there are differences in assistance dog breeds, temperaments, and training that may significantly contribute to observed variance across studies. Can you really generalise results from animals to humans? Advantages and Disadvantages of Animal Testing | Sciencing PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, On the other hand, Donovan [28] found no change in emotional functioning 4-months after receiving mobility service dog. The roles of dogs to assist in improving human wellbeing continue to expand. Capitanio, J. Even procedures as simple as drawing a blood sample or testing an animal on a cognitive task must be approved by the local IACUC before the work can begin. If you've taken an introductory psychology class, then you have probably read about seminal psychological research that was done with animals: Skinner's rats, Pavlov's dogs, Harlow's monkeys. While both reviews found mostly positive findings regarding mobility, guide, and hearing dogs effects on their handlers health and wellbeing, social interactions, and activity participation [7, 8], it was concluded that the small number of studies and methodological limitations of these studies preclude any clear conclusions [8]. To achieve the first aim of the reviewto describe study characteristicswe extracted several features of from each study and article (Table 1). A total of 1,830 records were screened via title and abstract in which 1,576 records were excluded due to irrelevancy (see Fig 1 for PRISMA diagram). Animal studies in psychology - American Psychological Association [43] found that individuals who had guide dogs reported less stress while walking, but not while using public transportation. Our first aim was to describe study characteristics of the literature. However, when more than one few companies uses the same resources and provide competitive parity are also known as rare resources. In longitudinal studies, the first follow-up time point varied from 3- to 12-months after receiving an assistance dog. The use of animal models in behavioural neuroscience research At this stage, articles were excluded if they were (1) non-English; (2) written for a magazine or other non-peer-reviewed source; (3) book reviews, book chapters, editorials, letters, or opinion papers that did not collect original data; (4) conference abstracts or proceedings; (5) studies assessing companion, therapy, or emotional support animals that were not trained for tasks or work related to a specific disability. Why is animal psychology important? The rationale for excluding studies on emotional service dogs and psychiatric service dogs is that the primary benefits of these dogs are psychological in nature, rather than physical or medical, which complicated comparisons of their psychosocial effects. Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York, United States of America, Affiliation: In the case of disagreements, inclusion or exclusion was resolved by discussion and consultation with a third independent reviewer (author MO). In terms of emotional functioning, two studies found positive results using the SF-36 role emotional domain; Lundqvist et al. Other self-evaluation outcomes assessed with null findings included no differences in self-concept between control groups and those with mobility service dogs [37] or guide dogs [46], no differences in attitude towards a disability 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28] or among guide dog users compared to a control group [38], and no differences in flourishing among guide dog users compared to a control group [46]. (2017, January 1). Promising areas include psychological wellbeing, emotional wellbeing, and social participation in which several positive outcomes were identified. On the other hand, Spence [34] found no improvement to a composite score of psychological health 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog. Guest [13] used the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], finding less overall mood disturbance, less tension, and less confusion 3-months after hearing dog placement. Animal studies in psychology. Summary of methodological rating scores by each of the N = 27 individual studies. The three Rs are a set of principles that scientists are encouraged to follow in order to reduce the impact of research on animals. Second, only 63% of studies described inclusion and/or exclusion criteria of recruited participants, and some studies did not report all demographic or disability characteristics of participants. The remaining four longitudinal studies assessed participants 35 times with final follow-up ranging from 924 months after receiving an assistance dog. Of the 44 positive comparisons, 36 (82%) were from published papers and 8 (18%) were from unpublished theses. The sub-category of loneliness had 19 comparisons in which only 1/19 (5%) was significant. Most studies reported adequate detail on participant demographics such as age and sex or gender identity (23/27; 85%) as well as disability characteristics such as primary diagnoses or severity (22/27; 81%). Other studies found increased social connectedness 3-months after receiving a mobility or hearing dog [31] and increased community integration 6, 12, 18, and 24 months after receiving a mobility service dog [14]. These studies were reviewed to complete three specific aims: to describe the key characteristics of studies, to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies, and to summarize outcomes. Regarding social participation, 14 comparisons were made in which 4/14 were significant (29%). However, only 44% (12/27) of studies reported statistical values (e.g. Other studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog on quality of life including more specific measures such as physical and environmental quality of life [33, 34]. For example, we know what the connections are between the amygdala and other brain regions, but how does activity in the amygdala affect brain functioning? Table 5 displays all quality of life outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of overall quality of life, life satisfaction, and independence. Finally, its important to note that animal research in the United States is very tightly regulated by a series of federal and state laws, policies and regulations, dating back to the landmark Animal Welfare Act from 1966. The other four studies reported no changes in participants mental health 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35], 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28], and 7-months after receiving a hearing or mobility service dog [32]. The process of animal model building, development and evaluation has rarely been addressed systematically, despite the long history of using animal models in the investigation of neuropsychiatric disorders and behavioral dysfunctions. Thoughts on limitations of animal models - ScienceDirect Additionally, research suggests the relationship between an assistance dog and its owner may also serve as a reciprocal attachment and caregiving relationship characterized by secure and strong attachments [18, 19]. S1 Table. Visual display of methodological ratings for N = 27 studies ordered by the number of studies addressing each item. [17] found better functioning among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group. Inability to draw cause-and-effect conclusions: The biggest disadvantage of naturalistic observation is that determining the exact cause of a subject's behavior can be difficult. Pet-Owning Kids Are Generally Better Off The five studies which found that pet owners were less depressed had, on average, many fewer participants (Mean = 401 subjects ) than the studies that found no difference in depression rates (Mean . The results of Harlow's experiments indicated that this early maternal deprivation led to serious and irreversible emotional damage. Under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, a United States law, an assistance dog must do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability in order to receive public access rights [4]. Moderator analyses will be useful in determining the potential explanatory effects that handler-service dog relationships have on psychosocial outcomes. Only 5/27 studies (19%) described dogs breeds and sources. Probably not, in much the same way that nonhuman research that permitted a significant human study to be conducted is rarely described in todays textbooks. Of 43 total social outcome comparisons, 7 (16%) were positive (improved or better social health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 36 (84%) were null (no difference) and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse social health in comparison to pre- or control conditions). The remaining studies were quasi-experimental in that they did not use randomized assignment to treatment or control groups. For example one could not look at the effects of maternal deprivation by removing infants from their mothers or conduct isolation experiment on humans in the way that has been done on other species. However, Lundqvist et al. Three studies found positive findings on measures of overall psychological wellbeing or psychosocial health, including increased psychological wellbeing 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35], 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog [14], and better overall psychosocial health in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [16]. In one example, four studies included in this review failed to find significant results in comparisons of depression using the CES-D [28, 3941]. route finding, retrieving dropped items, alerting to a seizure), the assistance dogs companionship, emotional and social support, and social facilitation effects in public may be particularly salient to improving the quality of life of individuals with disabilities [79]. Seven studies (26%) had sample sizes less than or equal to N = 20, all of which were longitudinal. Longitudinal assessment time points were varied. Animal psychologists have been undergoing an identity crisis, with increasingly common criticisms of the traditional field revolving around the assumption that laboratory preparations alone will reveal laws of learning having generality. Authors JG and KR independently coded 20% of the included articles to establish adequate inter-rater reliability (alpha = 0.822). When reporting statistical results, 78% of studies (21/27) provided estimates of variability for outcomes, including confidence intervals, standard deviations, or standard error of the mean. Animal research continues to play a vital role in psychology, enabling discoveries of basic psychological and physiological processes that are important for living healthy lives. [35] found no improvement 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, Donovan [28] found no improvement 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and Shintani et al. APA 2023 registration is now open! The third aim of the review was to summarize psychosocial outcomes of studies. As with every experimental methodology, there are disadvantages to using animals in experiments. Disadvantages of Animal Experimentation Ethical concerns Animals have to die for our research May be considered to be cruel Animal testing may not be acceptable regarding religious aspects Humans should not play god Animal testing can be expensive Animal experimentation may lead to the development of new diseases May be done in an excessive manner Table 4 summarizes the social outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general social functioning, loneliness, and social participation. Summary of methodological ratings for N = 27 studies ordered by reporting section (. This pattern suggests a potential publication bias present in which disproportionately more positive findings are in the published studies than the unpublished theses [78]. purpose-bred from a provider, self-trained) and breeds (e.g., Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Mixes). Human participants in these studies included those with hearing or visual impairments, diabetes, and seizure disorders. In total, 147 comparisons were made across the 27 studies that examined the effect of having an assistance dog on a standardized scale or sub-scale on a psychosocial outcome: 58 (39%) psychological outcomes, 43 (29%) social outcomes, 34 (23%) quality of life outcomes, and 12 (8%) energy/vitality outcomes. When human studies are presented, there is rarely discussion of the basic animal research that enabled those studies to be done.
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